in·te·gral

  [in-ti-gruhl, in-teg-ruhl]  Show IPA

adjective

1.

of, pertaining to, or belonging as a part of the whole;constituent or component: integral parts.

2.

necessary to the completeness of the whole: This point isintegral to his plan.

3.

consisting or composed of parts that together constitute awhole.

4.

entire; complete; whole: the integral works of a writer.

5.

Arithmetic . pertaining to or being an integer; not fractional.

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noun

7.

an integral whole.

8.

Mathematics .

a.

Also called Riemann integral. the numerical measure of thearea bounded above by the graph of a given function, belowby the x  -axis, and on the sides by ordinates drawn at theendpoints of a specified interval; the limit, as the norm ofpartitions of the given interval approaches zero, of the sumof the products of the function evaluated at a point in eachsubinterval times the length of the subinterval.

b.

a primitive.

c.

any of several analogous quantities. Compare improper integral, line integral, multiple integral, surface integral.

00:09

Integral is always a great word to know.

So is gobo. Does it mean:

a screen or mat covered with a dark material for shielding a camera lens from excess light or glare.

a calculus or concretion found in the stomach or intestines of certain animals, esp. ruminants, formerly reputed to be an effective remedy for poison.

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Origin: 
1545–55;  < Medieval Latin integrālis.  See integer, -al¹

Related forms

in·te·gral·i·ty, noun

in·te·gral·ly, adverb

un·in·te·gral, adjective

un·in·te·gral·ly, adverb

Synonyms 
2. essential, indispensable, requisite.

Dictionary.com Unabridged
Based on the Random House Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2013.
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Collins

World English Dictionary

integral
— adj
1.	( often foll by  to ) being an essential part (of); intrinsic (to)
2.	intact; entire
3.	formed of constituent parts; united
4.	maths
	a. of or involving an integral
	b. involving or being an integer
— n
5.	maths ʃ  the limit of an increasingly large number of increasinglysmaller quantities, related to the function that is being integrated(the integrand). The independent variables may be confined withincertain limits ( definite integral ) or in the absence of limits (indefinite integral )
6.	a complete thing; whole
integrality
— n
'integrally
— adv

Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition
2009 © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins
Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009
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Etymonline

Word Origin & History

integral 

1471, "of or pertaining to a whole," from M.Fr. intégral (14c.), fromM.L. integralis "forming a whole," from L. integer "whole" (seeinteger).

Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper
Cite This Source

Lemon v. Kurtzman

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Lemon v. Kurtzman
Supreme Court of the United States
Argued March 3, 1971 Decided June 28, 1971
Full case name	Alton J. Lemon, et al. v. David H. Kurtzman, Superintendent of Public Instruction of Pennsylvania, et al.; John R. Earley, et al. v. John DiCenso, et al.; William P. Robinson, Jr. v. John DiCenso, et al.
Citations	403 U.S. 602 (more) 91 S. Ct. 2105; 29 L. Ed. 2d 745; 1971 U.S. LEXIS 19
Prior history	310 F. Supp. 35 (E.D. Pa. 1969); 316 F. Supp. 112 (D.R.I. 1970)
Subsequent history	On remand to 348 F.Supp. 300 (E.D. Pa. 1972), aff'd, 411 U.S. 192 (1973)
Holding
For a law to be considered constitutional under the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment, the law must have a legitimate secular purpose, must not have the primary effect of either advancing or inhibiting religion, and also must not result in an excessive entanglement of government and religion.
Court membership
Chief Justice Warren E. Burger Associate Justices Hugo Black · William O. Douglas John M. Harlan II · William J. Brennan, Jr Potter Stewart · Byron White Thurgood Marshall · Harry Blackmun
Case opinions
Majority	Burger, joined by Black, Douglas, Harlan, Stewart, Marshall, Blackmun
Concurrence	Douglas, joined by Black, Marshall (who filed a separate statement)
Concurrence	Brennan
Concur/dissent	White
Laws applied
U.S. Const. amend. I; R.I. Gen. Laws Ann. 16-51-1 et seq. (Supp. 1970); Pa. Stat. Ann. tit. 24, §§ 5601-5609 (Supp. 1971)

Lemon v. Kurtzman, 403 U.S. 602 (1971),^[1] was a case in which the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that Pennsylvania's 1968 Nonpublic Elementary and Secondary Education Act, which allowed the state Superintendent of Public Instruction to reimburse nonpublic schools (most of which were Catholic) for the salaries of teachers who taught secular material in these nonpublic schools, secular textbooks and secular instructional materials, violated the Establishment Clauseof the First Amendment. The decision also upheld a decision of the First Circuit, which had struck down the Rhode Island Salary Supplement Act providing state funds to supplement salaries at nonpublic elementary schools by 15%. As in Pennsylvania, most of these funds were spent on Catholic schools.

Contents   [hide]  1 Lemon test 2 Recent Use 3 See also 4 Further reading 5 References

[edit]Lemon test

The Court's decision in this case established the "Lemon test", which details the requirements for legislation concerning religion. It consists of three prongs:

1. The government's action must have a secular legislative purpose;
2. The government's action must not have the primary effect of either advancing or inhibiting religion;
3. The government's action must not result in an "excessive government entanglement" with religion.

If any of these 3 prongs are violated, the government's action is deemed unconstitutional under the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution.

The act stipulated that "eligible teachers must teach only courses offered in the public schools, using only materials used in the public schools, and must agree not to teach courses in religion." Still, a three-judge panel found 25% of the State's elementary students attended nonpublic schools, about 95% of those attended Roman Catholic schools, and the sole beneficiaries under the act were 250 teachers at Roman Catholic schools.

The court found that the parochial school system was "an integral part of the religious mission of the Catholic Church," and held that the Act fostered "excessive entanglement" between government and religion, thus violating the Establishment Clause.^[1]

Held: Both statutes are unconstitutional under the Religion Clauses of the First Amendment, as the cumulative impact of the entire relationship arising under the statutes involves excessive entanglement between government and religion.^[1]

[edit]Recent Use

Conservative Justices such as Antonin Scalia and Clarence Thomas have scrutinized the application of the Lemon law.^[2] The Supreme Court itself has applied the Lemon test as recently as 2000 in Santa Fe Independent School Dist. v. Doe,^[3]while in McCreary County v. American Civil Liberties Union the court did not overturn the Lemon test notwithstanding it was urged to do so by the petitioner.^[4]

[edit]See also

• List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 403
• Sherbert Test
• Endorsement test
• Lee v. Weisman
• Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District
• Summers v. Adams

[edit]Further reading

• Alley, Robert S. (1999). The Constitution & Religion: Leading Supreme Court Cases on Church and State. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books. pp. 82–96. ISBN 1-57392-703-1.
• Kritzer, Herbert M.; Richards, Mark J. (2003). "Jurisprudential Regimes and Supreme Court Decisionmaking: The Lemon Regime and Establishment Clause Cases". Law & Society Review 37 (4): 827–840. doi:10.1046/j.0023-9216.2003.03704005.x.

[edit]References

1. ^ ^a b c 403 U.S. 602 (Text of the opinion from Findlaw.com)
2. ^ 508 U.S. 384 (1993)
3. ^ 530 U.S. 290 (2000)
4. ^ 545 U.S. 844 (2005)

The Establishment

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Establishment is a term used to refer to a visible dominant group or elite that holds power or authority in a nation or organization. The term suggests a closed social group which selects its own members (as opposed to selection by inheritance, merit or election). The term can be used to describe specific entrenched elite structures in specific institutions, but is usually informal in application and is more likely used by the media than by scholars.

Contents   [hide]  1 Pakistan 2 United Kingdom 3 American Sociological Association 4 Hong Kong 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading

[edit]Pakistan

Main article: Establishment (Pakistan)

The terminology is used in Pakistan to describe the cooperative federation of the powerful military oligarchy; it also assets its role as a consolidated intelligence community. Though, its idea supports the powerful military mind-set, but the Establishment itself is "not" exclusively military. The Establishment's sphere includes country's elite civilian politicians, senior civil servants, senior barristers and judges, aristocrats, senior clergy in the established of Pakistan's right-wing sphere, the most important financiers and industrialists, and the media moguls. The Establishment in Pakistan considers the key and elite decision makers in country's public policy, ranging from the use of the intelligence services, national security, foreign and domestic policies.

[edit]United Kingdom

The term is most often used in the United Kingdom, where it includes leading politicians, senior civil servants, senior barristers and judges, aristocrats, senior clergy in the established Church of England, the most important financiers and industrialists, governors of the BBC, and theMonarchy. For example, candidates for political office are often said to have to impress the "party establishment" in order to win endorsement. The term in this sense was coined by the British journalist Henry Fairlie, who in September 1955 in the London magazine The Spectator defined that network of prominent, well-connected people as "the Establishment", explaining:

"By the 'Establishment', I do not only mean the centres of official power—though they are certainly part of it—but rather the whole matrix of official and social relations within which power is exercised. The exercise of power in Britain (more specifically, in England) cannot be understood unless it is recognised that it is exercised socially."^[1]

The term was quickly picked up in newspapers and magazines all over London, making Fairlie fairly famous. He had not been the first to use The Establishment in this fashion; Ralph Waldo Emerson had it a century before^[2]—the Oxford English Dictionary would cite Fairlie's column as itslocus classicus.

This use of the word was presumably influenced by the British term established church for the official churches in Great Britain. The term was soon found useful in discussing power elites in many countries, and the English word is used as a loanword in many languages.

In the jargon of sociology, one who does not belong to "The Establishment" is an "outsider".^[3][4]

[edit]American Sociological Association

The term is often used by rebels complaining about a small group that dominates a larger organization. For example, in 1968 academic radicals set up the "Sociology Liberation Movement" to repudiate the excessively mainstream leadership of the American Sociological Association, which they referred to as the "Establishment in American sociology".^[5]

[edit]Hong Kong

The term is also borrowed in the context of Hong Kong politics, where political parties, community groups, chambers of commerce, trade unions and individuals who are cooperative with and loyal to Beijing and the post-1997 Hong Kong Government are labelled (most often self-labelled) "pro-establishment". The term first appeared around 2005, in contrast with pro-democracy camp, to displace previously common yet derogatory labels. They also label the pro-democracy camp as "the opposition", which they use with negative connotations in the Cantonese language spoken by a majority in the territory, whereas "pro-establishment" is usually considered positive, since it carries the characters for constructive, and for systematic or orderly.^{[citation needed]}

Before that these people and organisations were called (Beijing) loyalists, royalists, pro-communists (which were all considered derogatory), and pro-China, etc. The term is different than the usage in the UK in the sense that this term is not commonly regarded to cover pro-democracy politicians in the territory's legislature, nor prominent barristers and solicitors who are vocal in criticising the government, amongst others.^{[citation needed]}

[edit]See also

• Anti-establishment
• Cronyism
• Disestablishmentarianism
• Established church
• Iron law of oligarchy
• Military-industrial complex
• Political class
• Power elite
• The Man

[edit]References

This article cites its sources but does not provide page references. You can help to improve it by introducing citations that are more precise. (May 2012)

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1. ^ Fairlie, Henry, "Political Commentary", The Spectator, 23 September 1955.
2. ^ Fairlie, Henry (19 October 1968). "Evolution of a Term". The New Yorker.
3. ^ Elias, Norbert; Scotson, John L (1965). The Established and the Outsiders. OCLC 655412048.^{[page needed]}
4. ^ Elias; Martins, Herminio; Whitley, Richard (1982). Scientific Establishments and Hierarchies. Dordrecht: Reidel. ISBN 978-90-277-1322-3.^{[page needed]}
5. ^ Alan Barcan, Sociological theory and educational reality (1993) p. 150

[edit]Further reading

• Campbell, Fergus. The Irish Establishment 1879–1914" (2009)