글 목록

프로필

내 사진
서울 서초구 반포대로 14길 30, 센추리 412호. TEL: 010-6350-1799 이메일:jawala.lee@gmail.com. Attorney at Law, Tax, Patent. Lee,Jae Wook is a member of the Korean Bar Association and Illinois Bar Association. Licensed to practice in KOREA and U.S.A., Illinois. Attorney Lee has worked since 1997.3. as a prominent Attorney in the legal service field including tax, law, patent, immigration, transaction across the border. You can find more at http://taxnlaw.co.kr

2013년 5월 9일 목요일


Kiln

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For the census-designated place, see Kiln, Mississippi. For the software package, see Fog Creek Software.
"Kilns" redirects here. For the house where C. S. Lewis wrote many of his works, see The Kilns.
Charcoal kilns, California
Hops kiln
Anagama kiln firing.
Farnham Pottery, Wrecclesham, Surrey with the preserved bottle kiln on the right of photo
Catenary arch kiln under construction
An empty, intermittent kiln; note the decorated vase having just been removed from the kiln
A kiln is a thermally insulated chamber, a type of oven, that produces temperatures sufficient to complete some process, such as hardening, drying, or chemical changes. Various industries and trades use kilns to harden objects made fromclay into pottery, bricks etc.[1] Various industries use rotary kilns for pyroprocessing—to calcinate ores, produce cement, lime, and many other materials.
The earliest known kiln dates to around 6000 BC, and was found at the Yarim Tepe site in modern Iraq.[2]
Other uses include:

Contents

  [hide] 

[edit]Ceramic kilns

Kilns are an essential part of the manufacture of all ceramics, which require heat treatment, often at high temperatures. During this process, chemical and physical reactions occur that permanently alter the clay. In the case of pottery, clay materials are shaped, dried and then fired in a kiln. The final characteristics are determined by the composition and preparation of the clay body, by the temperature at which it is fired, and by the glazes that may be used. Although modern kilns often have sophisticated electrical systems to control the firing temperatures, pyrometric devices are also frequently used.
Clay consists of fine-grained particles, that are relatively weak and porous. Clay is combined with other minerals to create a workable clay body. Part of the firing process includes sintering. This heats the clay until the particles partially melt and flow together, creating a strong, single mass, composed of a glassy phase interspersed with pores and crystalline material. Through firing, the pores are reduced in size, causing the material to shrink slightly. This crystalline material is predominantly silicon and aluminium oxides, and is very hard and strong.

[edit]Types of kiln

In the broadest terms, there are two types of kiln, both sharing the same basic characteristics of being an insulated box with controlled inner temperature and atmosphere.
In using an intermittent kiln, the ware to be fired is loaded into the kiln. The kiln is closed, and the internal temperature increased according to a schedule. After the firing is completed, both the kiln and the ware are cooled.
Kilns in this type include:[3]
  • Clamp kiln
  • Skove kiln
  • Scotch kiln
  • Down-Draft kiln
A continuous kiln, sometimes called a tunnel kiln, is a long structure in which only the central portion is directly heated. From the cool entrance, ware is slowly transported through the kiln, and its temperature is increased steadily as it approaches the central, hottest part of the kiln. From there, its transportation continues and the temperature is reduced until it exits the kiln at near room temperature. A continuous kiln is energy-efficient, because heat given off during cooling is recycled to pre-heat the incoming ware. In some designs, the ware is left in one place, while the heating zone moves across it.
Kilns in this type include:
  • Hoffman kiln
  • Bull’s Trench kiln
  • Habla (Zig-Zag) kiln
A special type of kiln, common in tableware and tile manufacture, is the roller-hearth kiln, in which ware placed on batts is carried through the kiln on rollers.
Kiln technology is very old. The development of the kiln from a simple earthen trench filled with pots and fuel, pit firing, to modern methods happened in stages. One improvement was to build a firing chamber around pots with baffles and a stoking hole. This conserved heat. A chimney stack improves the air flow or draw of the kiln, thus burning the fuel more completely. Early examples of kilns found in Britain include those that made roof-tiles during the Roman occupation. These kilns were built up the side of a slope, such that a fire could be lit at the bottom and the heat would rise up into the kiln.
With the industrial age, kilns were designed to use electricity and more refined fuels, including natural gas and propane. Many large industrial pottery kilns use natural gas, as it is generally clean, efficient and easy to control. Modern kilns can be fitted with computerized controls allowing for fine adjustments during the firing. A user may choose to control the rate of temperature climb or ramp, hold or soak the temperature at any given point, or control the rate of cooling. Both electric and gas kilns are common for smaller scale production in industry and craft, handmade and sculptural work.
  • Anagama kiln - the Asian anagama kiln has been used since medieval times and is considered the oldest style of production kiln, brought to Japan from China via Korea in the 5th century. This kiln usually consists of one long firing chamber, pierced with smaller ware stacking ports on one side, with a firebox at one end and a flue at the other. Firing time can vary from one day to several weeks. Traditional anagama kilns are also built on a slope to allow for a better draft.
  • Bottle kiln - a type of intermittent kiln, usually coal-fired, formerly used in the firing of pottery; such a kiln was surrounded by a tall brick hovel or cone, of typical bottle shape.
  • Catenary arch kiln, typically used for the firing of pottery using salt, these by their form (a catenary arch) tend to retain their shape over repeated heating and cooling cycles, whereas other types require extensive metalwork supports.
  • Electric kilns - kilns operated by electricity were developed in the 20th century, primarily for smaller scale use such as in schools, universities, and hobby centers. The atmosphere in most designs of electric kiln is rich in oxygen, as there is no open flame to consume oxygen molecules. However, reducing conditions can be created with appropriate gas input, or by using saggars in a particular way.
  • Feller kiln brought contemporary design to wood firing by re-using unburnt gas from the chimney to heat intake air before it enters the firebox. This leads to an even shorter firing cycle and less wood consumption. This design requires external ventilation to prevent the in-chimney radiator from melting, being typically in metal. The result is a very efficient wood kiln firing one cubic meter of ceramics with one cubic meter of wood.
  • Microwave assisted firing - this technique combine microwave energy with more conventional energy sources, such as radiant gas or electric heating, to process ceramic materials to the required high temperatures. Microwave-assisted firing offers significant economic benefits.
  • Noborigama kiln - the Noborigama is an evolution from Anagama design as a multi-chamber kiln, usually built on a slope, where wood is stacked from the front firebox at first, then only through the side-stoking holes with the benefit of having air heated up to 600 °C from the front firebox, enabling more efficient firings.
  • The Sèvres kiln was invented in Sèvres, France and efficiently generated high-temperatures (1280 °C) to produce water-proof ceramic bodies and easy to obtain glazes. It features a down-draft design that produces high temperature in shorter time, even with wood-firing.
  • Top-hat kiln - an intermittent kiln of a type sometimes used to fire pottery. The ware is set on a refractory hearth, or plinth, over which a box-shaped cover is lowered.

[edit]Wood-drying kiln

A variety of wood drying kiln technologies exist today: conventional, dehumidification, solar, vacuum and radio frequency.
Conventional wood dry kilns (Rasmussen, 1988) are either package-type (sideloader) or track-type (tram) construction. Most hardwood lumber kilns are sideloader kilns in which fork trucks are used to load lumber packages into the kiln. Most softwood lumber kilns are track types in which lumber packages are loaded on kiln/track cars for loading the kiln.
Modern high-temperature, high-air-velocity conventional kilns can typically dry 1-inch-thick (25 mm) green lumber in 10 hours down to a moisture content of 18%. However, 1-inch-thick green Red Oak requires about 28 days to dry down to a moisture content of 8%.
Heat is typically introduced via steam running through fin/tube heat exchangers controlled by on/off pneumatic valves. Less common are proportional pneumatic valves or even various electrical actuators. Humidity is removed via a system of vents, the specific layout of which are usually particular to a given manufacturer. In general, cool dry air is introduced at one end of the kiln while warm moist air is expelled at the other. Hardwood conventional kilns also require the introduction of humidity via either steam spray or cold water misting systems to keep the relative humidity inside the kiln from dropping too low during the drying cycle. Fan directions are typically reversed periodically to ensure even drying of larger kiln charges.
Most softwood lumber kilns operate below 240 °F (116 °C) temperature. Hardwood lumber kiln drying schedules typically keep the dry bulb temperature below 180 °F (82 °C). Difficult-to-dry species might not exceed 140 degrees F.
Dehumidification kilns are similar to other kilns in basic construction. Drying times are usually comparable. Heat comes primarily from an integral dehumidification unit that also removes humidity. Auxiliary heat is often provided early in the schedule, where the heat required may exceed the heat generated by the dehumidification unit.
Solar kilns are conventional kilns, typically built by hobbyists to keep initial investment costs low. Heat is provided via solar radiation, while internal air circulation is typically passive.
Newer wood drying technologies have included the use of reduced atmospheric pressure to attempt to speed up the drying process. A variety of vacuum technologies exist, varying primarily in the method heat is introduced into the wood charge. Hot water platten vacuum kilns use aluminum heating plates with the water circulating within as the heat source, and typically operate at significantly reduced absolute pressure. Discontinuous and SSV (super-heated steam) use atmosphere to introduce heat into the kiln charge. Discontinuous technology allows the entire kiln charge to come up to full atmospheric pressure, the air in the chamber is then heated, and finally vacuum is pulled. SSV run at partial atmospheres (typically around 1/3 of full atmospheric pressure) in a hybrid of vacuum and conventional kiln technology (SSV kilns are significantly more popular in Europe where the locally harvested wood is easier to dry versus species found in North America). RF/V (radio frequency + vacuum) kilns use microwave radiation to heat the kiln charge, and typically have the highest operating cost due to the heat of vaporization being provided by electricity rather than local fossil fuel or waste wood sources.
Valid economic studies of different wood drying technologies are based on the total energy, capital, insurance/risk, environmental impacts, labor, maintenance, and product degrade costs for the task of removing water from the wood fiber. These costs (which can be a significant part of plant costs)involve the differential impact of the presence of drying equipment in a specific plant. An example of this is that every piece of equipment (in a lumber manufacturing plant) from the green trimmer to the infeed system at the planer mill is the "drying system". Since thousands of different types of wood products manufacturing plants exist around the globe, and may be integrated (lumber, plywood, paper, etc.) or stand alone (lumber only), the true costs of the drying system can only be determined when comparing the total plant costs and risks with and without drying.
The total (harmful) air emissions produced by wood kilns, including their heat source, can be significant. Typically, the higher the temperature the kiln operates at, the larger amount of emissions are produced (per pound of water removed). This is especially true in the drying of thin veneers and high-temperature drying of softwoods.

[edit]See also

[edit]Gallery

작성자: 시간:

Covenant (law)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2008)
Property law
Part of the common law series
Types
Acquisition
Estates in land
Conveyancing
Future use control
Nonpossessory interest
Related topics
Other common law areas
A covenant, in its most general sense and historical sense, is a solemn promise to engage in or refrain from a specified action. Under historical English common law a covenant was distinguished from an ordinary contract by the presence of a seal. Because the presence of a seal indicated an unusual solemnity in the promises made in a covenant, the common law would enforce a covenant even in the absence of consideration.[1] In United States contract law, an implied covenant of good faith is presumed.

A covenant is a type of contract in which the covenantor makes a promise to a covenantee to do (affirmative covenant) or not do some action (negative covenant). In real property law, the term real covenants is used for conditions tied to the use of land. A "covenant running with the land", also imposes duties or restrictions upon the use of that land regardless of the owner. Restrictive covenants are somewhat similar to easements and equitable servitudes, leading to some discussion about whether these concepts should be unified;[2] the Restatement (Third) of Property takes steps to merge these concepts as servitudes.[3] Real covenant law in the United States has been referred to as an "unspeakable quagmire" by one court.[4]
Covenants for title are covenants which come with a deed or title to the property, in which the grantor of the title makes certain guarantees to the grantee.[5] Non-compete clauses in the United States are also called restrictive covenants.

Contents

  [hide] 

Covenants related to land [edit]

In property law, land-related covenants are called "real covenants" and are a major form of covenant, typically imposing restrictions on how the land may be used (negative covenants) or requiring a certain continuing action (affirmative covenant). These may also "run with the land" (called a covenant appurtenant), meaning that the any future owners of the land must abide by the terms, or may apply to a particular person (called a covenant in gross).[5] Under English law, affirmative covenants typically do not run with the land; in the United States such covenants are examined more closely, but with exceptions affirmative covenants have been permitted to run with the land.[6]
The covenant may be shown in the deed and should be disclosed to prospective purchasers; it may also be recorded, or in the case of Commonwealth countries shown in Torrens title. Real covenants and easements or equitable servitudes are similar[7]and in 1986, a symposium discussed whether the law of easements, equitable servitudes, and real covenants should be unified.[2] As time passes and the original promisee of the covenant is no longer involved in the land, enforcement may become lax.[8]
Covenants may be imposed through homeowner associations, and controversy has arisen over selective enforcement.[citation needed] Historically, particularly in the United States exclusionary covenants were used to exclude racial minorities. Some covenants exist for safety purposes, such as a covenant forbidding the construction of tall buildings in the vicinity of an airport or one restricting the height of fences on corner lots (so as not to interfere with drivers' sight lines). Covenants may restrict everything from the height and size of buildings to the materials used in construction to superficial matters such as paint color and holiday decorations. In residential areas, covenants may forbid "dirty" businesses (such as feedlots or chemical production facilities) or business use entirely, or modifications such as amateur radio antenna. Amateur radio restrictions have been particularly controversial; in 1985 the FCC issued PRB-1 preempting state and local restrictions, but not private restrictions; in 2012 after Congress passed a law requiring study of this issue (at the urging of amateur radio group ARRL[9]), the FCC declined to extend this preemption.[10]
In Canada, governmental authorities may use restrictive covenants as well as zoning. For instance, the city of Calgary's requirement that buildings in the general vicinity of Calgary International Airport be under a certain height is registered against virtually every title in the northeast quadrant of the city as a restrictive covenant, not as a zoning by-law.

Requirements [edit]

The covenant will typically be written in the deed, and must be in writing due to the statute of frauds. Although scholars have argued that some of the following should be significantly relaxed, in order for the burden to run with the land the following must apply:[11]
  • The covenant must be in writing to satisfy the Statute of Frauds.
  • The original parties to the agreement must have intended that successors be bound by the agreement.
  • A subsequent owner must have had actual notice, inquiry notice, or constructive notice (record) of the covenant at the time of purchase.
  • The covenant must touch or concern the land. The covenant must relate to the use or enjoyment of the land.
  • There must be horizontal privity between the original parties.
    • Horizontal privity is found if, at the time the original parties enter into the agreement, those parties share some interest in the subject land independent of the covenant (e.g. landlord and tenant, mortgagee and mortgagor, or holders of mutual easements). Individual state statutes can alter the requirements of horizontal privity of estate. Privity may be instantaneous and mutual; instantaneous privity is present when the restrictive covenant is within the deed initially conveyed from the grantor to the grantee.
  • There must be strict vertical privity of estate.
    • Vertical privity characterizes the relationship between the original party to the covenant and the subsequent owner. To be bound by the covenant, the successor must hold the entire estate in land held by the original party (strict vertical privity of estate). Note that because strict vertical privity is required for a burden to run, a lessee could not have a burden enforced against them. However, a benefited party could sue the owner of the reversion of the estate, and the owner could possibly sue the lessee for waste.

Enforcement and modification [edit]

Courts interpret covenants relatively strictly and give the words of the agreement their ordinary meaning. Generally if there is any unclear or ambiguous language regarding the existence of a covenant courts will favor free alienation of the property. Courts will not read any restrictions on the land by implication (as is done with easements for example). A covenant can be terminated if the original purpose of the covenant is lost. In some cases property owners can petition a court to remove or modify the covenants, and homeowner associations may include procedures for removing the covenants.
The covenant may be negative or affirmative. A negative covenant is one in which property owners are unable to perform a specific activity, such as block a scenic view. An affirmative covenant is one in which property owners must actively perform a specific activity, such as keeping the lawn tidy or paying homeowner's association dues for the upkeep of the surrounding area.
An agreement not to open a competing business on adjacent property is generally enforceable as a covenant running with the land. However, a covenant that restricts sale to a minority person (commonly used during the Jim Crow era) is considered unenforceable.

England and Wales [edit]

At common law, the benefit of a restrictive covenant runs with the land if three conditions are met:[12]
  • The covenant must not be personal in nature - it must benefit the land rather than an individual
  • The covenant must 'touch and concern' the land - it must affect how the land is used or the value of the land
  • The benefited land must be identifiable.
At common law, the burden of a restrictive covenant does not run[13] except where strict privity of estate (a landlord/tenant relationship) exists. The burden can be enforced at law in limited circumstances under the benefit/burden test - that is, whoever takes the benefit must also shoulder the burden. In Halsall v Brizell [1957] Ch 169, a covenant requiring the upkeep of roads was found to bind the successor in title to the original covenantor because he had elected to take the benefit. A positive burden can run in law, but not in equity.
The rule in Halsall v Brizell is limited to cases where the benefit can be linked to a specific burden and where the covenantor's successors in title can physically elect to take the benefit. For example, a restrictive covenant to contribute to the maintenance costs of a common area will not be binding if the covenantor's successors in title have no legal right to use them.[14]
The burden of a restrictive covenant will run in equity if these prerequisites are met:[15]
  • The burden cannot be a positive burden (that is, it requires expenditure to meet it);
  • The purchaser must have notice of the covenant
  • The covenant must benefit the covenantee's land
  • The covenant must be intended to run with the covenantor's land.
The leading case of restrictive covenants in equity is generally regarded as that of Tulk v Moxhay in which is was determined that the burden could run in equity subject to the qualifications listed above.

Covenants in planned communities [edit]

In contemporary practice in the United States, a covenant typically refers to restrictions set on contracts like deeds of sale. "Covenants, conditions, and restrictions," commonly abbreviated "CC&Rs" or "CCRs", are a complicated system of covenants, known generically as "deed restrictions," built into the deeds of all the lots[16] in a common interest development, particularly in the tens of millions of American homes governed by a homeowner association (HOA) or condominium association. There are some office or industrial parks subject to CCRs as well.
These CCRs might, for example, dictate building materials (including roofing materials), prohibit certain varieties of trees, or place restrictions on the number of dwellings that may be built on the property. The purpose of this is to maintain a neighborhood character or prevent improper use of the land. Many covenants of this nature were imposed in the 1920s through the 1940s, before zoning became widespread. However, many modern developments are also restricted by covenants on property titles; this is often justified as a means of preserving the values of the houses in the area. Covenant restrictions can be removed through court action, although this process is lengthy and often very expensive. In some cases it even involves a plebiscite of nearby property owners. Although control of such planning issues is often governed by local planning schemes or other regulatory frameworks rather than through the use of covenants, there are still many covenants imposed, particularly in states that limit the level of control over real property use that may be exercised by local governments.

Exclusionary covenants [edit]

A Florida subdivision plat from 1926 with a racially-discriminatory deed restriction
Before 1948, these covenants were legally used for segregationist purposes.[17]
In the 1920s and 1930s, covenants that restricted the sale or occupation of real property on the basis of race, ethnicity, religion or social class were common in the United States, where the primary intent was to keep "white" neighbourhoods "white". Such covenants were employed by many real estate developers to "protect" entire subdivisions. The purpose of an exclusionary covenant was to prohibit a buyer of property from reselling, leasing or transferring the property to members of a given race, ethnic origin and/ or religion as specified in the title deed. Some covenants, such as those tied to properties in Forest Hills Gardens, New York, also sought to exclude working class people however this type of social segregation was more commonly achieved through the use of high property prices, minimum cost requirements and application reference checks.[18]:131-7 In practice, exclusionary covenants were most typically concerned with keeping out African-Americans, however restrictions against Asian-Americans, Jews and Catholics were not uncommon. For example, the Lake Shore Club District in Pennsylvania, sought to exclude various minorities including Negro, Mongolian,Hungarian, Mexican, Greek and various European immigrants.[18] Cities known for their widespread use of racial covenants include Chicago, Baltimore, Detroit and Los Angeles.

History [edit]

Racial covenants emerged during the mid-nineteenth century and started to gain prominence from the 1890s onwards. However it was not until the 1920s that they adopted widespread national significance, a situation that continued until the 1940s. Some commentators have attributed the popularity of exclusionary covenants at this time as a response to the urbanisation of black Americans following World War I, and the fear of "black invasion" into white neighbourhoods, which they felt would result in depressed property prices, increased nuisance (crime) and social instability.[18]:97-8 the consequent race riots of 1917-1921 and the 1917 US Supreme Court ruling of Buchanan v. Warley that invalidated the imposition of racially restrictive zoning ordinances (residential segregation based on race) on constitutional grounds.[19][20]:26 Many African Americans openly defied these covenants and attempted to "pioneer" restricted areas.[21]

Opposition [edit]

During the 1920s, the National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People (NAACP) sponsored several unsuccessful legal challenges against racial covenants. In a blow to campaigners against racial segregation, the legality of racial restrictive covenants was affirmed by the landmark Corrigan v. Buckley 271 U.S. 323 (1926) judgment that ruled that such clauses constituted "private action" and as such were not subject to the Due Process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.[20]:31 As a result of this decision, racial restrictive covenants proliferated across the United States during the 1920s and 1930s. Even the invalidation of such a covenant by the U.S. Supreme Court in the 1940 case of Hansberry v. Lee did little to reverse the trend because the ruling was based on a technicality and failed to set alegal precedent.[20]:57 It was not until 1948 that the Shelley v. Kraemer judgment overturned the Corrigan v. Buckley decision in stating that exclusionary covenants were unconstitutional under the Fourteenth Amendment and were therefore legally unenforceable.[20]:94

Exclusionary covenants today [edit]

Although exclusionary covenants are not enforceable today, they still exist in many original property deeds as 'underlying documents', and title insurance policies often contain exclusions preventing coverage of such restrictions. In 2010, it was found that more than 400 properties in Seattlesuburbs alone retained (unenforceable) discriminatory language that had once excluded racial minorities.[22]

Examples in U.S. [edit]

  • Forest Hills Gardens, Queens, New York – covenants forbade the sale of real property to blacks, Jews and working-class people.
  • Jackson Heights, Queens, New York – covenants employed to restrict occupancy to white, non-immigrant Protestants.[23]
  • Washington Park Subdivision, Chicago, Illinois – restrictive covenants used to exclude African-Americans.
  • Palos Verdes, Los Angeles, California – covenants forbade an owner to sell or rent a house to anyone not of white or Caucasian race and to not permit African-Americans on their property with the exception of chauffeurs, gardeners and domestic servants.[18]:15
  • Guilford, Baltimore, Maryland – covenants provided for exclusion against negros or persons of negro extraction.[18]:65

Examples outside U.S. [edit]

Although most commonly associated with the United States, racial restrictive covenants have been used in other countries:
  • Canada – Subdivisions such as Westdale, Ontario employed racial covenants to bar a diverse array of ethnic groups such as Armenians and foreign-born Italians and Jews.[18]:103 Opposition to exclusionary covenants was significant in Canada, culminating in the 1945 Re: Drummond Wren ruling by the Ontario High Court which invalidated their use. This judgment was influential in guiding similar decisions in the United States and elsewhere.[24]
  • South Africa – racial covenants emerged in Natal during the 1890s as an attempt to prevent Indians from acquiring properties in more expensive areas and were commonplace across the country by the 1930s. They were later used as a tool to further the cause of apartheid against the black population.[25]
  • Zimbabwe – Asians and coloured people were excluded from purchasing or occupying homes in European areas by restrictive racial covenants written into most title deeds.[26]

Title covenants [edit]

Title covenants serve as guarantees to the recipient of property, ensuring that the recipient receives what he or she bargained for. The English covenants of title, sometimes included in deeds to real property, are (1) that the grantor is lawfully seized (in fee simple) of the property, (2) that the grantor has the right to convey the property to the grantee, (3) that the property is conveyed without encumbrances (this covenant is frequently modified to allow for certain encumbrances), (4) that the grantor has done no act to encumber the property, (5) that the grantee shall have quiet possession of the property, and (6) that the grantor will execute such further assurances of the land as may be requisite (Nos. 3 and 4, which overlap significantly, are sometimes treated as one item).[27] The English covenants may be described individually, or they may be incorporated by reference, as in a deed granting property "with general warranty and English covenants of title..."[28]

Noncompete covenant [edit]

Main article: Non-compete clause
Restrictive covenants also include noncompete contracts, which have been controversially applied to physicians and other professionals.[29]

See also [edit]

Notes and sources [edit]

  1. ^ Covenant. From the 'Lectric Law Library's Lexicon.
  2. ^ a b Integration of the Law of Easements, Real Covenants and Equitable Servitudes. Washington Law Review.
  3. ^ Hernandez MV. (2005). Restating Implied, Prescriptive, and Statutory Easements. Real Property, Probate and Trust Journal.
  4. ^ Lucas D. (2004). There is a Porn Store in Mr. Roger's Neighborhood: Will You Be Their Neighbor? How to Apply Residential Use Restrictive Covenants to Modern Home Businesses. Campbell Law Review.
  5. ^ a b Covenant. (2008). West's Encyclopedia of American Law, edition 2. Retrieved August 7, 2009, from http://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Covenant.
  6. ^ New York has been one such exception; see Nicholson v. 300 Broadway Realty Corp., 7 NY 2d 240 - NY: Court of Appeals 1959.
  7. ^ Schnably. Easements, Covenants, and Equitable Servitudes.
  8. ^ Expanded outline on covenants Harvard Law School.
  9. ^ "Payroll Tax Bill Includes Provision for Amateur Radio Study". ARRL News. Newington, Connecticut: American Radio Relay League. 17 February 2012. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
  10. ^ Chief, FCC Wireless Telecommunications Bureau; Chief, Public Safety and Homeland Security Bureau (16 August 2012). "DA 12-1342".Washington, D.C.: Federal Communications Commission. Retrieved 23 August 2012.
  11. ^ Ch. 33 Real Covenants. LexisNexis Study Outline.
  12. ^ Gray et al., Property Law in New South Wales, second edition, p547
  13. ^ Austerberry v Oldham Corporation (1885) 29 Ch D 750
작성자: 시간:
피드 구독하기: 글 (Atom)

이 블로그 검색